Wednesday, 1/10/2007 (Lecture 1): In today's lecture session, the administrative policies and organization of the BIO 423/523 course for Spring semester, 2007, were presented to the class. As part of the PowerPoint presentation delivered to the class, a website address for the electronic version of the course syllabus was provided to the students. The day's lecture was directed at defining histology and describing to students the levels of organization that we will be examining human structure this semester.
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Friday, 1/12/2007 (Lecture 2): Today we began a review of basic eukaryotic cell biology that will continue to dominate class for the first few lecture periods. Students are encouraged to read chapters 2-3 in the textbook as part of this review process. Much of today's review focused on proteins in the eukaryotic cell.
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Wednesday, 1/17/2007 (Lecture 3): The four basic tissues (epithelium, connective tissue, muscle, nerve) that will be studied in BIO 423/523 were identified in today's lecture. A brief introduction to the general characteristics of epithelium was provided. The structure of the basement membrane was discussed. The role of the electron microscope in assisting scientists in understanding the microstructure of the basement membrane was noted.
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Friday, 1/19/2007 (Lecture 4): Our discussion of epithelium continued today, as we considered the broad categories of junctional complexes found in epithelial tissues. A brief look was also given to the general categories of cellular adhesion molecules found in association with epithelial cells, too. Much of the lecture was spent examining the ways that different epithelia are categorized by histologists on the basis of the number of layers of cells in contact with the basement membrane as well as cellular shape. Special epithelia (urothelium, pseudostratified epithelium) were also described. Endothelium and mesothelium were defined.
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Monday, 1/22/2007 (Lecture 5): A few additional comments concerning the organization of stratified squamous epithelium were made at the beginning of today's lecture. Apoptosis was defined, and the Bax and Fas pathways leading to caspase cascade activation and subsequent nuclear fragmentation were identified. The organization of epithelial glands was described, and some of the different approaches that histologists take in looking at glands were examined.
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Wednesday, 1/24/2007 (Lecture 6): At the beginning of the lecture we briefly examined some of the terminology used to classify glands, based on the distribution/construction of ducts and secretory units. A full bladder was observed, and an unknown epithelium was submitted to the class for identification. Connective tissue became the subsequent topic for the day. General characteristics of connective tissue were identified. The composition of matrix was discussed very briefly. Connective tissue proper was described and subtypes of this tissue were defined. Both loose and dense connective tissue were examined before lecture ended today.
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Friday, 1/26/2007 (Lecture 7): A brief tissue identification quiz was held at the beginning of today's lecture. We saw examples of several types of epithelia as well as some views of connective tissue proper. The cells found in connective tissue proper were the main subject of today's lecture. The fibroblast was identified as the most important cell in connective tissue proper when it comes to matrix secretion. The significance of mast cells, and mast cell granules, to inflammation was noted. The requirements for mast cell degranulation were described. Arachidonic acid metabolites, the eicosanoids, were mentioned as chemicals involved in some of the sustained effects noted following cross-linkage of antigen-specific IgE attached to Fc receptors on mast cell membranes.
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Monday, 1/29/2007 (Lecture 8): Discussion about the cells found in connective tissue proper, especially loose connective tissue, continued today. Most of the lecture period was spent looking at the biology of macrophages. The role of macrophages in the recycling of erythrocytic components was outlined. The role of macrophages in serving as antigen-presenting cells was elucidated. Some of the factors which trigger the activation of a circulating macrophage were mentioned. The differences between class I and class II MHC molecules were described. The minimal requirements necessary for the transformation of a macrophage-precursor into an osteoclast were identified. As lecture ended, students were told about the formation of free radicals via the action of iNOS in macrophages on L-arginine; students were asked to look at definitions of a free radical before coming to class on Wednesday.
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Wednesday, 1/31/2007 (Lecture 9): Today's lecture focused primarily on macrophages, and their function in tissues. Many of the different phenotypic manifestations of macrophages were identified. The role of macrophage-produced cytokines in inflammation was mentioned. Some of the versions of macrophages that are seen in disease situations, such as epithelioid cells and giant cells observed in granulomatous inflammation, were described.
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Monday, 2/5/2007 (Lecture 10): Lymphocytes received most of the attention in today's lecture, as we wrapped up our look, for now, at some of the predominant types of cells found in loose connective tissue. The fact that traditional light microscopy is of little value in distinguishing between the various forms of lymphocytes was noted, but this truth did not impede our examination of T cells, B cells, and NK cells. Some of the roles played by lymphocytes in the immune response were superficially described. Cell-mediated immunity was compared and contrasted with humoral immunity. The transformation of B cells into the antibody-synthesizing factories known as plasma cells was mentioned. Our journey into connective tissue continued as we took an introductory look at cartilage. The three main types of cartilage (hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage) were identified.
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Wednesday, 2/7/2007 (Lecture 11): The discussion on cartilage that began on Monday was expanded today, as we chewed on this gristle for an extended period of time. The utility of cartilage in its various forms was described. Some of time's cruel effects on cartilage were mentioned. The organization of cartilage was presented and viewed for each of the different types of cartilage. Articular cartilage was discussed. The differences between interstitial and appositional cartilaginous growth were given the requisite coverage. Multiple images of cartilage appeared in the lecture presentation, and viewing the online version of the lecture presentation would probably assist the student a great deal.
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Friday, 2/9/2007 (Lecture 12): We walked through the process of endochondral bone formation during the first part of today's lecture, as our discussion of tissues transforms from cartilage to bone. Much less time was spent examining intramembraneous bone formation, where undifferentiated mesenchymal tissue transforms directly into bone (the tissue). Basic cells found in bone were identified, and the unique characteristics of bone matrix were noted. The role of osteoblasts in producing osteoid (bone matrix before it hardens) was mentioned. Osteogenesis and osteoclasis were defined. Discussion turned to the function of osteoclasts (cells which we have talked about previously, as members of the macrophage family) as lecture drew to a close.
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Monday, 2/12/2007 (Lecture 13): Bone was the subject du jour. The lecture began with a repetitive look at the mechanisms which control the formation of osteoclasts, involved in bone matrix removal. Much of the lecture was spent identifying some of the terms used in naming bone-related structures. The fact that osteocytes must maintain physical contact with each other was mentioned in class. The processes by which osteoclasts function to remove bone matrix were mentioned in a general way. The microenvironment of Howship's lacuna (= subosteoclastic compartment) was described.
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Wednesday, 2/14/2007 (Lecture 14): The specialized connective tissue known as blood stole our hearts on this very special Valentine's Day BIO 423/523 Histology lecture. The connective tissue components of blood cells and matrix were identified. Some of the unique characteristics of erythrocytes were described before discussion of leukocytes was initiated. Details about the biology of neutrophils were provided, including specifics pertaining to the mechanisms by which activated neutrophils destroy engulfed bacteria. The functions of active oxidase and myeloperoxidase in generating the formation of free radicals in neutrophilic phagolysosomes were described.
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Friday, 2/16/2007 (Lecture 15): After completing our look at neutrophils, we examined the other granulocytic leukocytes, the eosinophils and basophils. The function of major basic protein in the eosinophilic cytoplasmic granules was mentioned. The similarities between the functions of basophils and mast cells was reported. A few brief comments about the agranulocytes were made, since we had discussed much about these cells when we talked about the cells expected to be found in connective tissue proper. The formation and function of platelets were described. Details of platelet granule contents and surface receptors were identified near the end of the lecture period.
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Monday, 2/19/2007 (Lecture 16): A few final words were spoken about thrombocytes in clotting, before a brief discussion of hematopoiesis was initiated. The importance of bone marrow in serving as the site of hematopoiesis in adult humans was mentioned. Stem cells, committed progenitor cells, and maturing cells were identified as being the most useful categories employed when discussing the general groups of bone marrow cells participating in hematopoiesis. Several acronyms (such as CFU) were defined. The sites for the final maturation of lymphocytes were described. Interleukins, erythropoietin and thrombopoietin, and CSFs were recognized as the chemicals generally involved in promoting hematopoiesis. Some structural characteristics of bone marrow sinusoids were noted. A brief introduction to lymphoid tissue/the lymphoid system followed.
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Wednesday, 2/21/2007 (Lecture 17): Details about the structure of components of the so-called lymphoid system were presented in class today. Diffuse aggregations of lymphocytes and lymphatic nodules were described. The so-called gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) and related forms of lymphoid tissue associated with mucosae found in the human body were identified. Descriptions of the structure of normal lymph nodes and some of the abnormal states possible in the appearance of lymph nodes affected by disease were provided. The general structure of the thymus was mentioned, and the importance of involution in the lifespan of this organ in humans was noted. Some of the thymic discussion focused on both the cytoreticulum of this organ and the identity of Hassall's corpuscles.
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Friday, 2/23/2007 (Lecture 18): Coverage of the structure of the spleen concluded our examination of the lymphoid system/lymphoid tissues. The composition of red pulp and white pulp was identified, and the significance of each of these areas to the spleen was mentioned. The role of the spleen in removing aberrant red blood cells from the blood vascular circulation was explained. Splenic sinusoids were described. A brief discussion of adipose tissue followed concluding remarks about the spleen.
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Monday, 2/26/2007 (Lecture 19): Examples of adipose tissue were viewed as part of lecture today before we moved on to begin our examination of muscle. The three forms of muscle (smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscle) that will be covered in class this semester were identified, and each of the major structural features of these tissues were described. Images of smooth muscle were viewed as part of our examination of this form of muscle. The syncytial nature of skeletal muscle was mentioned, and some of the terminology associated with skeletal muscle was defined. Lecture concluded as we began to look at the structural details of the myofiber.
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Wednesday, 2/28/2007: Today's lecture period was spent reviewing material that will appear on Friday's midterm examination in BIO 423/523. Following a BIO 423/523 tradition, the review was conducted through delivery of "Jeopardy!"... minus a few of the rules and set props.... and Alex Trebek. Hopefully a good time was had by all, and perhaps some meaningful points were driven home by the review.
Friday, 3/2/2007: LECTURE EXAMINATION I
Monday, 3/5/2007 (Lecture 20): The focus of today's lecture was the structure of the skeletal muscle cell, especially the myofibril. The structural components of the sarcomere, the repetitive structural/functional unit of myofibers, were detailed. The composition of thin and thick filaments was discussed. Several sections of skeletal muscle were observed during lecture. As the class period came to an end, we had started to look at the differences between type I and type II skeletal muscle cells.
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Wednesday, 3/7/2007 (Lecture 21): Profiles of type I and type II skeletal muscle fibers were constructed in class today. The unique structural features of cardiac muscle as viewed using the light microscope were identified. The similarities and differences between the sarcomere of cardiac and skeletal muscle were mentioned, with an electron micrograph serving as a visual aid for the discussion.
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Friday, 3/9/2007 (Lecture 22): The basic characteristics of the tissue known as nerve were introduced to the class today in lecture. Some of the general anatomical reference points used to identify the human nervous system were noted before a discussion of the cells of nerve was initiated. The structure of a multipolar neuron was the focus of much of the lecture, as an example of a typical neuron found in different parts of the CNS. Neuroglia was identified. Cellular processes were described, and the important features that permit a neuron to be identified as a neuron were mentioned. The components of a reflex arc were listed. A brief description of the function of Schwann cells was provided.
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Monday, 3/19/2007 (Lecture 23): Today's lecture began with a look at the regional histology of the brain on a very broad scale. Some of the variations seen in the neurons found in these structures were reported (specifically pyramidal cells and Purkinje cells). The four basic types of neuroglial cells seen in the CNS were identified and some comments about the known functions of these cells were made. An attempt was made to demonstrate to students how to identify different neuroglial cells in paraffin sections.
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Wednesday, 3/21/2007 (Lecture 24): Ependymal cells were briefly described at the beginning of today's lecture, as we finished examining the neuroglial cells and moved ahead to delve further into some elements of the peripheral nervous system. "Ganglion" was defined, and examples of ganglia were viewed in class. Dorsal root ganglia, and their relationship to the spinal cord, were described. Autonomic ganglia were identified, and the different branches of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic components) were discussed. The lecture concluded following a comparative look at the physiological differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system.
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Friday, 3/23/2007 (Lecture 25): Peripheral nerves and their structure/organization were the topic of discussion in most of today's lecture. The structure of a peripheral nerve was detailed, including examining the look of peripheral nerve is cross section. The role of Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system was described. Satellite cells in the dorsal route ganglia were identified. We began our look at the histology of the elements of the circulatory system as the lecture concluded.
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Monday, 3/26/2007 (Lecture 26): We continued our look at the circulatory system by examining in greater detail the ways to distinguish arteries from veins, and arterioles from venules. The composition of the three basic layers of the walls of blood vessels was noted. The latter part of the lecture was spent looking at the ways in which changes in the tunica intima of an artery can lead to atheroma formation.
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Wednesday, 3/28/2007 (Lecture 27): Most of today's lecture period was spent examining some of the structural features of the capillaries. Continuous, fenestrated, and discontinuous capillaries were defined. Once again, sinusoids were described. Some of the major histological features of the heart were noted.
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Friday, 3/30/2007 (Lecture 28): The respiratory system was the focus of today's lecture. Discussion of the gross anatomy of the respiratory tract was followed by a look at the histology of the upper airaways. Some attention was given to the olfactory surface of the nasal cavity. The regional differences seen in the mucosal epithelia of the laryngeal structures were described. A general break-down of the histological features of the bronchus, bronchiole, and respiratory alveolus was provided.
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Monday, 4/2/2007 (Lecture 29): A brief look at the histology of respiratory alveoli concluded our examination of the microscopic anatomy of the respiratory tract. Subsequent study of the digestive system began with discussion of the tissues of the oral cavity. Most of the lecture was devoted to the study of the tooth, although the lip and the hard & soft palate were also covered. Description of the tongue's structures began as the lecture period came to an end.
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Wednesday, 4/4/2007 (Lecture 30): After mentioning the taste buds, we quickly launched past the tongue into a discussion of the salivary glands. The three main patterns of human salivary glands (sublingual, submaxillary/submandibular, parotid) were presented in some detail. The structure of the ducts of the salivary glands was focused on at length. Brief mention was made at the end of the lecture of the structure of tonsils (which have been covered previously in class), followed by an identification of the four layers of the tubular digestive tract.
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Monday, 4/9/2007 (Lecture 31): Our journey down the digestive tube began today as we looked at the esophagus. The four layers (mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and adventitia/serosa) were described as they appear in the human esophagus. Following our discussion of the esophagus, we looked at the stomach. A brief review of the gross anatomy of the stomach was followed by a more in-depth discussion of the gastric mucosa. The lecture ended as we were looking at the structure and function of the parietal cell.
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Wednesday, 4/11/2007 (Lecture 32): Slightly more discussion about the structure of the stomach (including a description of G cells and their function) gave way to examination of the histology of the small intestine. The general features of the small intestine were identified, followed by an examination of the three regions of the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum). Individual cell types of the small intestine were mentioned.
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Friday, 4/13/2007 (Lecture 33): The lecture began with discussion of the histology of the large intestine. Special features of the wall of the large intestine were noted. Some of the characteristics of the terminal portion of the large intestine were mentioned. Discussion of the liver followed; the features of the classic hepatic lobule were described. Mention was made of the portal lobule as the lecture came to a close.
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Monday, 4/16/2007 (Lecture 34): The lobules of the liver were discussed in greater detail today, with the classical lobule, portal lobule, and the hepatic acinus compared. The individual cells of the liver were discussed. The structure and function of the gallbladder was briefly described. The structure and function of the exocrine pancreas was described.
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Wednesday, 4/18/2007 (Lecture 35): Today's lecture began by looking at the structure of the endocrine pancreas. The cells of the islets of Langerhans were described, and the secretions that they release were noted. Several views of the islets in hematoxylin and eosin sections were observed. Following the description of the endocrine pancreas, we began our examination of the components of the kidney. The repetitious functional unit of the kidney, the nephron, was described, with most of today's lecture taking a look at the structure of the uriniferous tubule.
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Friday, 4/20/2007 (Lecture 36): The renal corpuscle was the structure that we spent most of today's lecture examining. Much of the time was spent identifying structures and terms that are specific to this area of the nephron. The known functions of most of these structures was briefly described as the structures were identified. The relationship between the kidney and blood pressure was mentioned. The lower urinary tract was also described. The gross anatomy of the female reproductive tract was discussed.
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Monday, 4/23/2007 (Lecture 37): Today's look at the female reproductive system was focused primarily on the structure of the ovary. The general tissue composition of the ovary was described. Follicular structure and development was described. As lecture drew to a close, we were taking a look at the gonadotrophic hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, in preparation for including them in the discussion of future events associated with the female reproductive system.
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Friday, 4/27/2007 (Lecture 38): Study of the female reproductive tract continued today, as we looked at some of the connections between ovarian events and the histology of the uterus. Effects of the corpus luteum's secretion of progesterone and the transformed theca's secretion of estrogen on the endometrium were described. The timeline of the menstrual cycle was discussed. The construction of the wall of the uterus was mentioned.
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Monday, 4/30/2007 (Lecture 39): The histology of the oviducts, the cervix, and the vagina was covered in today's lecture. Functions of these organs were correlated with the histology. Ciliated cells in the oviducts were noted. The endocervix and the ectocervix were described, and the role of the cervix in reproduction was mentioned. As discussion of the female reproductive tract came to a close, we took a look at the gross anatomy of the male reproductive tract before beginning a more in-depth examination of the histology of these structures. Consideration was given to the histology of the testis, focusing on the seminiferous tubules, and the roles of the Sertoli cells and the Leydig cells.
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